Migraine
Introduction by Esther Lardreau-Cotelle
Agrégée de Philosophie
Docteur en Philosophie de l'Université Paris I
Détachée à l'IHPST-UMR
8590 (CNRS/ENS/Paris 1)
13 rue du Four, 75006 Paris
esthercotelle@wanadoo.fr
|
January 2008 |
Translation by
Karine
DEBBASCH
|
|
 |
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La Migraine. -
Album comique de pathologie pittoresque,
Recueil de vingt caricatures
médicales, Paris : A. Tardieu, 1823.
© BIUM |
|
Terminological
remarks
The major nineteenth-century
encyclopedias digitized on Medic@ feature articles on "cephalea",
"cephalalgia", "migraine", "hemicrania", "head pain" or
"carebaria" (literally, "head weightiness", "head
heaviness"). But the entries are sometimes separated, or
on the contrary joined together, and some articles are
sometimes altogether absent: the
Dictionnaire de médecine et de chirurgie pratiques
for instance (articles on "cephalalgia"
and "hemicrania")
features, in 1833, an article on "hemicrania", but has
no entry for "migraine"; on the other hand, in 1837,
the Dictionnaire ou répertoire
général des sciences médicales (articles on "cephalea,
cephalalgia"
and "migraine")
contains an entry on "migraine", but no article is
devoted to hemicrania. In 1876, the Nouveau
dictionnaire de médecine et de chirurgie pratiques
(articles entitled "cephalalgia, cephalea"
and "migraine or hemicrania")
presents no entry for "hemicrania", but the article on
"migraine" is entitled: "migraine or hemicrania". At the
beginning of the century, "head pain" had its place, as
can be seen in the Encyclopédie
méthodique (articles "cephalalgia",
"hemicrania",
"migraine"
and "head pain"), but the heading then disappeared from
other encyclopedias. The same goes for the notion of "carebaria",
which became obsolete.Migraine, hemicrania, cephalea,
cephalalgia, head pain, head illness, etc.: a
large number of terms, whose different meanings are not
self-evident, refer to what is commonly called "headache".
Etymology, in this particular case,
is of little help.Migraine and hemicrania are
alterations from the Medieval Latin: via the Late Latin
word hemicrania, or hemicranium, which
apparently was more frequently used, hemigranea,
hemigrania, migranea and migrana
were borrowed from the Greek hemicranion and
hemicrania, themselves composed of hemisus (half)
and cranion (cranium). These terms refer to half
the head as the locus of the migraine (hemicrania) and
also to the pain felt in this half of the head: the
illness coincides with its anatomical localization. In
Greek or Latin Antiquity, it was indeed quite frequent
to name a disease after the affected locus, so that
analyzing the names of the diseases often amounts to
defining them.
Although migraine and hemicrania are,
from an etymological point of view, perfect synonyms,
the two words are not used with the same meaning. As for
any doublet, or any pair of words issued from the same
etymon, each word acquired one particular meaning. The
common word ‘migraine’ appeared in the 12th
century with the non-medical acception of "despite,
boredom" (this meaning survived until the late 19th
century, for instance through the verb "migrainer" ("to
migraine") [1]: "to cause a migraine,
aggravate considerably, bore", which one can notably
find in the Goncourt brothers’ writings); it had a
normal phonetic evolution and underwent quite important
modifications of its meaning in the course of two
centuries. The more learned "hemicrania", on the
contrary, seems to have appeared in the 16th
century (Ambroise Paré used the word), at the time of
the re-Latinization of the French language; directly
borrowed from the Latin and the Greek, it only underwent
minor transformations. Due to this phonetic evolution,
migraine is, in its form, further away from the etymon,
and it also presents a looser connection between
signifier and signified than the word hemicrania does.
These two terms should therefore not
be considered as exact synonyms. Between the 16th
and the 20th centuries, ‘hemicrania’ was used
to refer to unilateral headache, whereas the word
‘migraine’, its etymology forgotten, was used
– as early as the end of the
18th century (by Tissot, for example), but
mostly during the 19th century
– to refer to extremely varied
forms, from forms accompanied by bilateral pain to
painless ones.
Until a date that can be situated
between 1829 (Prosper Martin) and 1831 (Pierre-Adolphe
Piorry), the term ‘hemicrania’ was systematically chosen
over ‘migraine’ [2]. But afterwards, ‘migraine’
prevailed, and hemicrania became used only to refer to a
symptom. Migraine was no longer a mere anatomic
definition, and the tendency was, on the contrary, to
emphasize a series of symptoms and prodromes that so far
had not been neglected altogether, but considered as
very secondary when compared to the defining sensation
of pain.
 |
|
Honoré
Daumier. Le mal de tête (The Headache)
Lithograph
published in Le Charivari, April 23, 1833
©
Brandeis University |
It is as if ancient texts and 19th-century
texts described the same sensations, the same reality,
but not the same disease. Actually, the category "head
pains" (dolores capitis) disappeared, whereas in
previous centuries, it was explicitly featured in
nosographies as a genus of disease, of which migraine
was a species. In this category, one could find
migraine, vapors, insanity, epilepsy, paralysis, catarrh,
but also ophthalmia, otalgia, odontalgia and rheumatisms,
according to the classifications (see for example Jean
Fernel, La Pathologie, ou discours des maladies (Pathology,
or On Diseases) in 1655
,
or Boissier de Sauvages, Nosologia methodica, in
1763
– translated in 1772 under the title Nosologie
méthodique (Methodical Nosology)
– or again Linné (Linnaeus)
[3])
 |
|
Vapors. - Album comique de
pathologie pittoresque,
Recueil de vingt caricatures médicales,
(Picturesque Pathology Album, Collection
of Twenty Medical Caricatures)
Paris : A. Tardieu, 1823.
© BIUM |
Rejection of the concept
of pain
Most of the texts that are digitized
here date from the 19th century, which is
particularly rich in academic publications on migrainous
diseases – medical students’
dissertations, monographs, dictionary articles, articles
from periodicals, chapters from textbooks or courses
– but also novels [4],
vaudevilles [5], operettas [6], lithographs [7], etc.The decision to digitize documents
was not accidental. Some texts, either because the
Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire de
Médecine does not possess them or because there
are beneficiaries, could not be digitized – which is why
some important references in the history of migraine are
not available for on-line consultation, although they
are featured in the bibliography.
But the corpus has also been
deliberately restricted, at least in part, to the late
18th and the 19th centuries,
insofar as the concept of migraine fully developed
during that particular period of time. It would be wrong
and anachronistic to believe that "migraine has always
existed." A given medical problem appears at a given
time, in a given place, according to a particular state
of medicine and physiology or pharmacology. Nevertheless,
the sensations of migraine and the facts of the disease
probably are perennial.Diseases are to be viewed in their
cultural environments. Particular time periods or
regions tend to elect one disease as representative of
their history. Each period, each country, has its "own"
diseases.
In the 18th century, the French often referred to the pox as "the Neapolitan
disease", which the English called "the French sickness".
England suffered from the spleen. Nineteenth-century
France had
"migraine": "one may say that France is
the homeland of migraine" [8]. For nineteenth-century
France, after the Revolution and the Terror, migraine
was a real problem, and was a grimacing image of the
various fractures in the country, be they social or
sexual. It was the disease of intellectuals, the disease
of ill-married women, the disease of the bourgeoisie.
It would nevertheless be wrong to
believe that in ancient times "head pain" was an unknown
disease. It would also be wrong to think that people in
the 19th century refused to look back on
previous centuries.
On the contrary, 19th-century
medical dissertations were all supposed to feature a
summary of the knowledge acquired in the course of
Antiquity. The writings of Galen
,
Pseudo-Galen
,
Aretaeus
,
Caelius Aurelianus
or Alexander of Tralles
were seldom read (the references often were second
hand), but they kept being repeated. As for the
Hippocratic corpus, it was only mentioned to provide
authority; indeed, although it does contain words such
as "cephalalgia", "head pains", "pains around the head",
"heaviness in the temples", "heaviness in the head",
there is nothing in it that portrays the migrainous
disease – apart from a passage from Epidemics
,
which seems to describe ophthalmic migraine, without
attributing it explicitly to migraine.
Independently of this academic
tradition, and independently of the translation choices
that Littré and Daremberg made in their attempts to make
the ancient writers accessible, it is not obvious that
the condition described in Antiquity by the Greek terms
hemicrania, heterocrania (Aretaeus), or under the Latin
terms hemicrania, hemicranium, corresponds to what the
19th century called "migraine". The
Encyclopédie and the
first 19th-century encyclopedias still
presented definitions in which the concept of pain was
central, but the perspective radically changed after the
first 25 years of the 19th century.For quite a few years, parallel
traditions, namely veterinary medicine and astronomy,
had actually been shedding light on "strange" ocular
phenomena – hemiopsy [9], phosphenes [10], etc. –
followed by cephalalgia; the medical tradition, starting
with Hippocrates, had considered these as part of a
specific disease, scotodynia [11]. Medicine therefore
considered it impossible to separate these phenomena
from migraine.
 |
Representation of a migrainous
aura with ophthalmic symptoms (hemianopsy or
loss of part of the visual field; positive
scotoma with perception of a dark spot – bottom
right; amblyopia or dimness of vision), and
osmophobia (hypersensitivity, intolerance to
odors). No pain. |
|
Jean-Jacques
Grandville, Sans titre (No title),
Old Nick (Paul Emile Forgues),
Petites misères de la vie humaine (Little
Miseries of Human Life) - Joco Seria,
no location, printed by H. Fournier & Cie, s.d.
(1842), p. 313.
© Private collection, E.
Lardreau |
|
Fothergill’s is one of the first
medical texts to mention ophthalmic aura, that series of
ophthalmic symptoms that are generally experienced at
the onset of or just prior to a migraine headache; his
work nevertheless was not known before Hubert Airy and
Liveing
read it in 1870 and 1873, respectively.But the founding dissertation, thanks
at once to its impact and to its decisiveness, is that
of Piorry, who invented the concept of ophthalmic
migraine [12] (see also Jules Pelletan de Kinkelin
):
among the various sensations a patient is likely to experience,
ophthalmic symptoms (in particular scintillating scotoma
[13]), close to vertigo (Mémoire sur le vertige
;
see also Ménière’s article
),
or speech deficiencies, are no less decisive than the
pain itself. Piorry’s work was furthered by Liveing’s
book and Hubert Airy’s article, previously mentioned,
and also by three important medical dissertations: that
of Dianoux
,
who presented what physicians knew about the condition
in 1875; that of Robiolis
who, in 1884, investigated the hypothesis of the
ophthalmologist Nicati (who had envisaged "migraines"
for each special sense organ (i.e. ophthalmic,
auditory, olfactory and gustative migraines); and that
of Fink
,
in 1891, who presented what was known at the time on
hysterical migraine. The three decisive articles by
Galezowski
,
Féré
and Babinski
were also a continuation of Piorry’s work.
|
 |
|
Depiction of
scotomas. - Hubert Airy,
"On a distinct form of transient hemiopsia",
Philosophical transactions of the Royal
Society of London, February 1870, p. 247-264.
© BIUM |
The old definition of "migraine" then
appeared as inadequate: not only had the history of
medicine shed light on hemicranias that were not
migraines, but there seemed to be migraines that
presented other types of symptoms than pain (Labarraque
,
for instance). There are a number of symptoms that
actually do not involve the "cranium": hands, arms,
tongue can be affected with tingling sensations.
The point nevertheless was not to
replace the old definition with another one, equally
nominal, but to substitute clinical descriptions for
that definition.
For physicians as different from one
another as Trousseau and Liveing, the starting point was
no longer in a theoretical definition, but in what could
be observed, be it a) at the hospital or b) in
the laboratory (experimentation).
a) One cannot but notice that
a number of cases reported in the medical literature
come from hospital or asylum populations [14].
Connections can therefore be made between patients who
do not belong to the same nosographic groups [15]. The
family history of the patient (his or her heredity), his
or her personal history, and the efficacy of a given
antimigrainous treatment are essential for the diagnosis:
phenomena different from those that migraine usually
features are not a priori excluded, provided they
belong to a migrainous history, and can be treated with
antimigrainous drugs. Links might therefore be made
between diseases as seemingly different from one another
as gout and migraine (Trousseau, Chaumier
,
Soula
),
epilepsy and migraine (Liveing, all the texts by Féré
presented here, Gowers), or hysteria and migraine
(Babinski, Fink) – transformations, or similitudes. Room
is made for marginal, irregular forms, as well as for
minimal and attenuated forms of the disease which, were
it not for the history of the patient and the history of
his/her family, would fail to be recognizable: yawning,
episodes of muteness, itching, congestion of the face,
vertigo, formation of bright images on the retina, can
all fall under a migraine diagnosis.
b) Another evolution of paramount
importance when compared to the previous centuries is
the resort to laboratory experimentation. Auzias-Turenne
introduced in 1846 [16] and used again in 1849
a mechanistic vascular model, rejecting both the
doctrine of sympathy [17] and the finalistic conception
of causality on which it was based. From the second half
of the 19th century, the truly "vasomotor"
theories (Du Bois-Reymond
,
Möllendorff
,
Eulenburg
,
Jaccoud [18], Latham
)
were based on the recent development of physiology, as
well as on a major experimental discovery, attributed to
both Claude Bernard
and Brown-Séquard: vasomotor nerves
regulate the arterial blood flow. The sympathetic nerve
could be cut, or on the contrary stimulated, in animals
in the laboratory. Due to an excitation of the
sympathetic nerve, vasoconstriction (the diminution in
the caliber of vessels caused by the contraction of its
muscles) produces local anemia (paleness, decrease in
body temperature, etc.). Due to a paralysis of
the sympathetic nerve, vasodilation (augmentation in the
caliber of vessels caused by relaxation of its muscles)
produces hyperemia (flush, local increase in temperature,
etc.). There could therefore be:
-
either two contradictory models
of migraine (Du Bois-Reymond, Möllendorff);
-
or two types of migraine,
vasoconstriction migraines on the one hand (commonly
called "white migraines", or scientifically "sympatheticotonic
migraines"), and vasodilation migraines on the other
("red migraines", or "neuroparalytical migraines") (Eulenburg);
-
or else, two different moments in
a migraine crisis: an initial phase of
vasoconstriction, followed with a phase of
vasodilation (Latham, Jaccoud).
Not only could one empirically
observe the different symptoms in support of one given
model, but one could also use devices to measure the
vascularization of a given part of the human body. Thus,
after Romain Vigouroux’s pioneering work in 1879,
Eulenburg set out to measure the resistance of the
migrainous body to electricity, with a view to proving
that it increases with the lack of vascularization.This change in perspectives did not
deter researchers from working on forms of migraine in
which pain was prevalent. An extremely rare form was
thus isolated: ophthalmoplegic migraine [18] (also
referred to as "Möbius’ disease
",
or as "Charcot-Möbius’ syndrome"), a migraine
accompanied by paralysis of some eye muscles (from the
Greek ophtalmos: eye, and plege: blow).
Charcot
may not have been the first to describe it (in 1860,
Gubler
described a paralysis of the stem of the oculomotor
nerve, preceded by migraines, although it is not
entirely clear that one can consider it as a real "ophthalmoplegic
migraine". Nevertheless, in 1890 Charcot gave it the
name under which it has been known ever since.
At the end of the 19th
century, speaking of "migraine" as if it represented a
nosological unit did not make sense any longer. Migraine
was not seen as a mere disease anymore, but as a
multiple entity that could be divided into various
syndromes: ordinary migraine, ophthalmic migraine,
ophthalmoplegic migraine. In many respects, this
classification is what made today’s conception of
migraine possible.
Other texts, some of them published
in the first half of the 20th century, are
just as important as the ones mentioned above. Wolff and
his colleagues rekindled work on the vascular hypothesis
[19]. As for the neurological hypothesis [20], it was
considerably enriched by a series of articles by Lashley
[21], Leão [22], and Milner [23].
Treatments
It is commonly thought that therapies
in the past were inconsistent, and were nothing but a
mix of ill-conceived procedures, resulting more from a
vague "magical" thinking than from rational thinking.
But this opinion cannot be maintained
in view of the documents we have. The medications
proposed during a given period were indeed consistent
with the theories of that period, even though one may
occasionally notice some discrepancies.
It is impossible to summarize in just
a few lines the whole range of pre-19th-century
therapies, as they varied both according to the schools
and according to the type of head pain one wished to
treat. The treatments usually promoted, as a general
prevention, [24] both a dieting and a healthy lifestyle:
practicing gymnastics, bathing, walking, traveling,
playing games for the spirit and/or for the body [25]
were recommended to avoid feeling unhappy, bored, angry
or worried, but also to avoid an excess of feelings. The
purpose of the diet was to facilitate digestion and to
avoid plethora, one of the major causes of hemicrania.A few categories of medications based
on different principles can nevertheless be listed.
-
1°) The "cephalic remedies" (verbena,
ambergris, camphor, orange flower water, etc.),
the use of which was to disappear, were recommended
against "head pains", not only against hemicrania.
These remedies were supposed to play some obscure
role on the brain, the nerves and their diseases,
improving one’s understanding and memory, curing
epilepsy, manias, paralysis, pains, imbecility,
etc.
-
2°) Other specifics, the "anodyne
remedies" (mullein flower, elder flower, poppy,
linden, etc.), were taken to anaesthetize
pain.
-
3°) The purpose of some therapies
was, on the contrary, either to provoke a new,
stronger pain in some other part of the body, or to
somehow stimulate a part of the body to create a
diversion. This was achieved by moxibustion, ustion,
or by vesicatories (creating blisters on the skin) –
which, by causing a second, artificial point of
irritation, counterbalanced the pain felt in another
area. Cauteries were used to awaken the sensitivity.
The technique of frictions had the same purpose, as
observed by Roselyne Rey [26].
-
4°) Based upon the humoral
theories, purgation or emesis, bloodletting,
arteriotomy, suction cups or leeches, and
sternutation were used in order to evacuate humors.
Some substances were also administered in the
treatment of head pains for their complementary
properties; it was the case of hellebore, which acts
both as a drastic purgative and as a narcotic.
-
5°) Physicians sometimes chose to
promote maturation or suppuration of the pain: these
were among the roles of ointments and plasters.
In the course of the 18th
century, other medications appeared, while the use of
some treatments (such as ustion, arteriotomy,
trepanation or cephalic remedies) was discontinued:
cinchona, which was already used against fevers, started
being administered to treat intermittent hemicrania. It
became more and more frequent to resort to electricity
and animal magnetism, including: electric baths, sparks,
electric commotions from the Leyden Jar and magnets.
Ether and opium were used extensively.In the 19th century, the
specifics (cephalic and anodyne remedies) disappeared.
The violent criticism of polypharmacy (pharmacy based on
the massive and multiple prescriptions of medicinal
substances) was approximately contemporary with the
criticism of the concepts of "head disease" and "head
pain". The therapies varied along with the theoretical
models of migraine.
-
1°) The analogy with epilepsy
made some prescribers use potassium bromide [27]. In
1867, Barudel, a military doctor [28], was the first
one to use it in the treatment of migraine, while
some ten years earlier Charles Locock had used it
against hystero-epilepsy and in 1858-1859, Wilks and
Radcliffe had used it in cases of epilepsy. Charcot
systematized its recourse against migraine as – in
his words – an empirical and analogical, but
successful treatment.
-
2°) Bromide was however
ineffective against hysterical migraine, and a
hypnotic therapy was prescribed in such cases.
-
3°) Against migraine as a
manifestation of gout or rheumatisms, physicians
used medications known to be efficacious against
these diseases: colchicum, sodium bicarbonate,
hydrotherapeutic cures [29] [30], salicylates
or pyrazolates
.
-
4°) And finally, against
the vascular forms of migraine, either
vasoconstrictors or vasodilators were used,
depending on the type of migraine; in angio-paralytic
forms, with vasodilation, rye ergot was prescribed;
in sympathetico-tonic forms, with vasoconstriction,
amyl nitrite and chloral (chloral hydrate) were
favored.
Treatment with galvanic and faradaic
currents developed during the second half of the 19th
century [see illustrations]. Both currents were
used to treat the two forms of migraine, but their
actions were quite different. In Brenner’s polarized
method, one of the electrodes of the galvanic cell was
placed on the cervical portion of the sympathetic, and
the other one was put in the patient’s hand. For
sympathetico-tonic migraine, the anode was applied on
the sympathetic, and the chain of the cell, composed of
10 to 15 elements, was suddenly closed: the anode, the
positive pole, produced a sedative effect. For
angioparalytic migraine, the cathode was placed on the
sympathetic, and the chain was not suddenly closed but,
on the contrary, successively opened and closed; the
direction of the current was sometimes inversed to
produce a stronger stimulation. The cathode, the
negative pole, increased excitability. The monopolar
method, also called Professor Chauveau’s method, was
also used at the time: the cathode or active electrode
(the smaller electrode) was placed on the sympathetic,
while the bigger, indifferent electrode (so called
because of the low electric intensity it carried) was
placed on the nape of the neck. The daily sessions were
very short: about 45 seconds each, with a very low
electric density.The faradaic current, an alternative
current obtained by induction with a variable magnetic
field (Ruhmkorff or Clarke coils), produced
discontinuous rhythmic muscular contractions (a
significant interval separated the end of one wave from
the beginning of the next one) that were used to
increase blood flow and diminish muscle inflammation.
Prior to 1870, small portable devices
were manufactured, allowing doctors to take to their
patients’ homes a cell that was powerful enough
to treat their crises.
More generally, the history of
pharmacy underwent a second transition at the end of the
19th century: the appearance of medication
packaging implied a new relationship between migraine
sufferers on the one hand and physicians and pharmacists
on the other. Physicians themselves started advising
their patients to keep powders and tablets on their
persons, even though they were aware that this came down
to delegating a part of their power. Medical advertising
had been forbidden in France until 1867 for fear of
quackery; the near monopoly of Bayer and the arrival of
synthesized products issued from German research (notably
antipyrin) changed migraine into a commercial object
of international dimensions.
Bibliographical elements
Summary indications.
Primary sources
|
AIRY (Hubert). On a distinct form of transient
hemiopsia, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London, février
1870, p. 247-264
|
|
ARAGO (François). Œuvres complètes, Mémoires
scientifiques (publiés sous la direction de J.-A. Barral), Paris, Gide, J. Baudry, 1858,
t. X, vol. 1, appendice XXXVII « Sur des phénomènes de demi-cécité » [BIUM
Call Number 59.376] |
|
BARUDEL (M.). De l’hémicrânie causée par l’anémie; de
son traitement par le bromure de potassium, Recueil de mémoires de médecine, de
chirurgie et de pharmacie militaire, 1867, 35, XVIII, p. 371-390 [BIUM
Call Number 90.149] |
|
BASSER (L.S.). Benign paroxysmal vertigo of childhood
(a variety of vestibular neuronitis), Brain, 1964, vol. 87, p. 141-152 [BIUM
Call Number 91.082] |
|
BICKERSTAFF (Edwin Robert). Basilar artery migraine,
Lancet, 1961, vol. 1, p. 15-17 |
|
BICKERSTAFF (Edwin Robert). Impairment of
consciousness in migraine, Lancet, 1961, vol. 2, p. 1057-1059 [BIUM
Call Number 90.503] |
|
BREWSTER (David). On hemiopsy, or half-vision,
Philosophical magazine and Journal of science, janvier-juin 1865, vol. XXIV,
quatrième série, p. 503-507 |
|
BUCHANAN (Arthur). The abdominal crises of migraine,
Journal of nervous and mental disease, 1921, vol. LIV, p. 406-412 [BIUM
Call Number 91.110] |
|
BURG (Robert). Étude expérimentale, clinique et
thérapeutique sur le pyramidon, thèse de médecine et de pharmacie n° 124, Lyon,
imprimerie A. – H. Storck, 1897 |
|
HERSCHEL (John). Familiar lectures on scientific
subjects, New York, G. Routledge and sons, London, A. Strahan and Co, 1871 |
|
KOVALESKY (Pavel Ivanovich). L’épilepsie et la
migraine, Archives de neurologie, 1906, deuxième série, vol. XXI, p. 365-379
|
|
OVERLACH (Martin). « Migränin », Ein erprobtes Mittel
bei den schwersten Fällen der Migräne, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 28
novembre 1893, t. XIX, p. 1245-1246 [BIUM Call
Number 90.667] |
|
OVERLACH (Martin). Migränin, seine Wirkung und
Bedeutung, Wiener Medizinische Blätter, 1894, t. XVII, p. 437-439 |
|
PARINAUD (Henri). Migraine ophtalmique au début d’une
paralysie générale, Archives de neurologie, 1883, vol. V, p. 57-59 |
|
RACHFORD (Benjamin Knox). Relationship of migraine to
epilepsy, American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 1898, n. s. t. CXV, p.
436-445 [BIUM Call Number 90.498] |
|
SLATER (Robert). Benign recurrent vertigo, Journal
of neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 1979, vol. 42, p. 363-367. [BIUM
Call Number 92.838] |
|
SNYDER (C. Harrison). Paroxysmal torticollis in
infancy, a possible form of labyrinthis, American Journal of Diseases of Children,
1969, vol. 117, p. 458-460 [BIUM Call Number 111.573] |
|
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Notes
|
1 |
The substantive form of this
verb only occasionally has this meaning : "Tous
sont des migrainés, comme ils disent, de
profession" ("They are all professional
migraine sufferers") (See G. Sée,
Du traitement des maux de
tête (céphalées, migraines, névralgies faciales)
par l’antipyrine (On the treatment
of head pains – headaches, migraines, facial
neuralgias – by antipyrin, Bulletin de
l’Académie de Médecine,
1887, second series, t. XVIII, p. 267
).
The same can be said of the adjective
"migraineux", which Soudry used in 1864 (A.
Soudry, Quelques remarques
sur la migraine (A Few Remarks on
Migraine), medical dissertation n° 26,
Paris, printed by A. Parent, 1864, p. 15
),
or of the substantive "migraineux", used in 1866
by Michellet (J. Michellet,
Considérations pathologiques sur la
migraine (Pathological Considerations
on Migraine), medical dissertation, Paris,
printed by A. Parent, 1866, p. 20
).
But the adjectives "migrainé"
and "migrainant", frequently used at the end of
the 19th century, can still be found
in the literature with the meaning of "boredom"
("migrainé": E. Garrett Anderson, Sur la
migraine [On Migraine], Paris medical
dissertation n° 138, 1870, p. 4
;
A. Thomas, Contribution à l'étude de la migraine
[Contribution to the study of Migraine],
Montpellier medical dissertation n° 63, 1889, p.
50
).
; "migrainant": E. Garrett Anderson, 1870, p.
18. |
|
2 |
The previously mentioned
article on "hemicrania", featured in the 1833
Dictionnaire de médecine et de chirurgie
pratiques (Dictionary of Practical Medicine and
Surgery), is probably one of the last academic
occurrences of the term. |
|
3 |
K. Von Linné,
Genera morborum, in auditorum usum, Leiden,
Upsaliie, C. E. Steinert, 1763, p. 40.
|
|
4 |
For example:
H. de Balzac, L’œuvre de Balzac, Physiologie du
mariage, Paris, Le Club français du livre, 1966,
t. 12, p. 1226 (méditation XXVI, § 1); E. Zola,
Œuvres complètes, Pot-Bouille, Paris, Fasquelle,
1967, t. 4. |
|
5 |
A.
Joltrois, É. Abraham, Madame a sa migraine (Madam has a migraine again), one-act
comedy-vaudeville, played in Paris at the
Folies-dramatiques on December
7, 1858, Paris, Librairie théâtrale, 1858. |
|
6 |
E. Audran,
La mascotte (The Mascot) (1880), comic opera,
libretto by Alfred Duru and Henri Chivot, Paris,
Montgredien et Cie, [s.d.], acte III, air n° 20,
p. 275 à 302. |
|
7 |
For example: H. Daumier, Le
mal de tête (The Headache), from the
"Imagination" series n° 9, published in the
Charivari issued on April 23, 1833. |
|
8 |
A. Haig,
Influence of salicylic acid and its salts on the
excretion of uric acid, Proceedings Royal
Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, New
Series, January-March 1888, n°8, 18, II, p. 326. Acknowledgements to Gill Jackson and the
Royal Society of London. |
|
9 |
Hemiopsy: from the Greek
hemi (half), and ops (eyesight): loss
of half of the visual field. The French term
used today is "hémiopie". |
|
10 |
Phosphenes:
from the Greek phos (light), and
phainein (appear): sensation of light
caused by
something other than light. |
|
11 |
Scotodynia: from the Greek
skotos (darkness), and dinos
(vertigo): vertigo accompanied with darkening of
vision, illusion of objects spinning, heart
palpitations, buzzing in both ears. Synonym of "scotomia"
and "dark vertigo". |
|
12 |
This particular form of
migraine has been given several different names:
"iris migraine" (Piorry), "ophthalmic migraine
(Pelletan); "eye migraine" (Allory, Tamin,
Galezowski); "classic migraine", as opposed to "common
migraine". Today, according to the International
Headache Society (The International
Classification of Headache Disorders, second
edition, Cephalalgia, 2004, vol. 24, Suppl. 1,
p. 25), the expression "migraine with aura", as
opposed to "migraine without aura," is to be
preferred to the too restrictive expression "ophthalmic
migraine". |
|
13 |
Scotoma: from the Greek
skotos (obscurity, dark, shade): an area of
diminished vision within the visual field,
situated either in the centre or in the
periphery. The patient may be aware of a dark
spot (positive scotoma); or he/she may not be
aware of the blank spot, bump into objects, or
have the impression that objects disappear (negative
scotoma). Scintillation: mobile bright spot,
generally in zigzags, that can accompany scotoma.
|
|
14 |
Only few migraine sufferers
were hospitalized at the beginning of the
century – although there were patients in the
services of Chomel, at the Charité hospital in
1822, and at the Hôtel-Dieu in 1838. But, during
the second half of the century, hospitalizations
were far more numerous, especially for
ophthalmic migraine, and a fortiori for
ophthalmoplegic migraine (see below). |
|
15 |
In 1870, in the Salpêtrière
Hospital, the Sainte-Laure building, which so
far harbored Delasiauve’s service, was so
dilapidated that the administration had it
evacuated. Patients diagnosed with insanity,
epilepsy and hysteria had been indiscriminately
hospitalized there. The evacuation was taken as
an opportunity to separate the insane from the
epileptic; and the hysterical patients, who also
suffered from seizures, were housed together in
a specialized ward, the "ward of simple epilepsy",
placed under the supervision of Charcot. In
1879, there were at the Salpêtrière 137 simple
epileptic patients, including hysterical
patients (see Ludger Jules Joseph Lunier,
Etablissements d’aliénés. Des
épileptiques : des moyens de traitement et
d’assistance qui leur sont applicables, Annales
médico-psychologiques (Lunatic Asylums.
Of Epileptic Patients: How to Treat and Assist
Them), 1881, n° 5, p. 231, tableau II
).
This allowed Charcot to shed light on the
resemblances and differences between the two
neuroses, and to isolate hysteria; and also to
reason, as Liveing had done, in terms of
neurotic equivalents, so that modes of thinking
and therapeutics might be imported from one
disease to another. There was no ward specific
to migraine sufferers, but it was known that
they had to be treated as epileptic patients,
with potassium bromide. |
|
16 |
J.A. Auzias-Turenne,
Théorie ou mécanisme de la migraine (Theory or
Mechanism of Migraine), Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des
Sciences / Institut de France, Paris,
Gauthier-Villars, juillet-décembre 1846, t.
XXIII. |
|
17 |
Sympathy: from the Greek
sun (with), and pathos (affection).
There are two different medical meanings; 1°)
physiologically, sympathy is a non mechanical
interrelationship, a harmony between different
organs of a body, such that one organ
participates in what happens to the other (the
phrase "sympathetic nerve" is derived from that
first meaning); 2°) pathologically, it refers to
a relationship between different organs such
that a disease produces observable effects, not
in the initially affected locus (seat of the
disease), but in another locus that has no
mechanical relationship with the first one. |
|
18 |
S.
F. Jaccoud, Traité de
pathologie interne, Paris, A. Delahaye, 1870, t.
1, II, livre III, chap. 1, « migraine –
hémicrânie », p. 452-456.
|
|
19 |
The definition of
ophthalmoplegic migraine has not evolved much,
but its classification as a form of migraine has
been abandoned: it is now considered as a kind
of neuralgia. The International Headache Society
(The International Classification of Headache
Disorders, second edition (ICHD-II), Cephalalgia,
2004, vol. 24, Suppl. 1, § 13.17 "Ophthalmoplegic
"migraine"", p. 131-132.) defines it as a series
of recurrent attacks of migrainous headache,
associated with paresis of one or several ocular
cranial nerves, in the absence of discernible
intra-cranial lesion. |
|
20 |
H. G.
Wolff, Personality features and reactions of
subjects with migraine, Archives of neurology
and psychiatry, 1937, vol. 37, p. 895-921; H. G.
Wolff, J. R. Graham, Mechanism of migraine
headache and action of ergotamine tartrate,
Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, Chicago,
1938, n° 39, p. 737-763; Wolff’s headache and
other head pain, (1948), edited by Donald J.
Dalessio, New York, Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1980 (fourth edition). |
|
21 |
It may be summarized (and
simplified) in the following manner: the various
neurological phenomena that precede cephalalgia
would depend on the outbreak of a cortical wave
called cortical spreading depression (CSD),
corresponding to cerebral excitation followed by
a depression of the membranous potential,
gradually spreading at a speed of 3 mm/minute,
via the neurons, without respecting vascular
territories. |
|
22 |
K. S.
Lashley, Patterns of cerebral integration
indicated by scotomas of migraine, Archives of
Neurology and Psychiatry, 1941, vol. 46, p.
331-339. |
|
23 |
A. de A.
P. Leão, Spreading depression of activity in the
cerebral cortex, Journal of Neurophysiology,
1944, vol. 7, p. 359-390. |
|
24 |
P. M.
Milner, Note on a possible correspondence
between the scotomas of migraine and spreading
depression of Leão, Electroencephalography and
Clinical Neurophysiology Supplement, 1958, vol.
10, n° 4, p 705. |
|
25 |
The opposition between
treatment of a crisis and general treatment of
migraine is absolutely not contemporary. It was
already made in Antiquity. In the 19th
century it gave rise to systematic consideration.
|
|
26 |
See for instance Caelius
Aurelianus’s concept of laxatio animi,
spiritual counterpart to physical therapy
through relaxation. |
|
27 |
R. Rey,
Histoire de la douleur (A History of Pain),
Paris, Editions La Découverte et Syros, 2000, p.
153. |
|
28 |
L. Fuchs, Du
traitement de la migraine par le bromure de
potassium (On the Treatment of Migraine with
Potassium Bromide), Paris, G. Steinheil, 1896. |
|
29 |
M. Barudel,
De l’hémicrânie causée par l’anémie ; de son
traitement par le bromure de potassium, Recueil
de mémoires de médecine, de chirurgie et de
pharmacie militaires (Of Hemicrania caused by
Anemia; of its Treatment with Potassium Bromide,
Collection of Military Medicine, Surgery and
Pharmacy Dissertations), 1867, 35, XVIII, p.
371-390. |
|
30 |
J.M.A. Beni-Barde,
Manuel médical d'hydrothérapie (Medical Manual
of Hydrotherapy), Paris, Masson, 1883, p.
352-355.
|
|
31 |
L.-J.-D.
Fleury, Traité thérapeutique et clinique
d’hydrothérapie : de l’application de
l’hydrothérapie au traitement des maladies
chroniques dans les établissements publics et au
domicile des malades ; études de philosophie
médicale et de pathologie générale (Therapeutic
and Clinical Treatise of Hydrotherapy: on the
Use of Hydrotherapy in the Treatment of Chronic
Diseases, both in Public Establishments and in
the Patients’ Homes), Paris, P. Asselin, 1866.
|
|
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